hollywood + the studio system

Hollywood + The Studio System
(notes taken from Abrams, Bell and Udris, Studying Film, Arnold 2001)

∑ The Studio System—Golden Age of Hollywood or Classical Era in American film, between 1930 + 1949
o Defined by WWII production context
o Refinement and streamlining of film production and exhibition processes
o Based on industrial model with assembly line production, talent contracting, studio genre specializations and styles

∑ Historical Context—stock market crisis in 1929, the Great Depression, the Second World War. After the crash and depression with vast unemployment and radical change in circumstances, films offered means of escape from the harsh realities and these films tended to downplay worst aspects of the Depression. During the Second World War Hollywood flourished because the government deemed it an essential industry. Studios helped to sell war bonds and made promotional ‘propaganda’ pictures—Frank Capra’s “Why We Fight” series.

Hollywood’s position as film capitol of the world made possible in pat by the advent of First World War in 1914. The war temporarily destroyed European competition, particularly in France and Italy. For the next four years Hollywood dominated the film world establishing an impressive global distribution network. It has been estimated that in 1914 Hollywood made 50% of world’s films; by 1918 it mad nearly all of them. By 1925 foreign film rentals amounted to 50 % of Hollywood revenues.

∑ Oligopoly—eight studios dominated film industry in a situation where competition is limited
o Divided into ‘majors’ or ‘big five’ and ‘minors’ or ‘little three’
o The Majors
ß Warner Bros.
ß Lowes-MGM
ß Fox
ß Paramount
ß Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO)
o The Minors
ß Columbia
ß Universal
ß United Artists

∑ Vertical Integration—studio majors dominated film production, distribution and exhibition. They made, released and marketed their own films, even owning the cinemas in which they were shown: exhibition was the most profitable sector of the industry.
o Block booking—in 1916, Adolph Zukor developed a system for film distribution that forced theatre owners to rent Paramount’s star vehicles along with blocks of less desirable and less commercially viable films.
o Desire to dominate exhibition meant move to acquire as many cinemas as possible. Between 1930 and 1949 they owned almost three-quarters of first-run cinemas. Countries were divided into markets, these divided into zones in which first,-run, second-run and so-on cinemas were classified. First run—new releases—most seats in central locations. Each film was shown for 14-42 days before moving to next zone.

∑ Assembly Line—during golden years films were produced at a rate of one per week—at its height the studio system released 350 films in a single year.
o Rationalization of working methods--each studio had its own back lot, wardrobe dept. props and contract actors.
o By 1931 we find the introduction of the producer-unit system—head of production responsible for running the studio; directly below him a number of associate producers responsible for supervising a number of films and delivering them to the head of production.
o Process—script preparation; casting; creative personnel appointed; once shooting was completed films passed to editing dept where it was cut according to general specifications.

∑ Style—the style of each film owed more to the value so the studio than to those of particular individuals working on it
o MGM—melodramas, musicals and literary/theatrical adaptations noted for high key lighting, rich production design and stories embodying middle class American values (The Wizard of Oz (1939); Gone with the Wind (1939).
o Paramount—a European feel since many of its directors, crafts-persons and technicians came from Germany. It made sophisticated and visually lavish films such as ‘sex and violence’ spectacles, musical comedies and light operas (The Sign of the Cross, 1932, The Love Parade, 1930).
o Warners—had a reputation as the studio for the working class and focused on low-life melodramas and musicals with a depression setting (The Public Enemy (1931); Wild Boys of the Road (1933); Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933). Musical flourished with Busby Berkeley.
o RKO—hoe of Fred-Astaire-Ginger Rogers musicals as well as of literary adaptations (Flying Down to Rio 1033); The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1938)
o Twentieth Century Fox—films characterized by ‘hard glossy surfaces.
o The Minors—Universal produced low budget + horror-fantasy genre (Dracula, (1933)); Columbia specialized in westerns; UA distributed independent directors City Lights (1931).

∑ Genre—another form of standardization that facilitated the use of factory production-line techniques during the studio era was the development of genre. Genres provided the formula for making different films using similar techniques. Once a formula had been tried and tested it was hoped that future success could be guaranteed. Genres also provided a means for money saving production practices: the sets, props, equipment, techniques, storylines and stars could be recycled.

∑ Contract System—During the years 1930-1949, the studios employed all personnel even their stars on long-term or permanent contracts. The stars, directors and crew were contracted to a particular studio and those who had established a reputation in the industry were employed on a contractual basis. In practical terms this meant that individuals could be assigned roles with ease, speed and minimal expense.

∑ Decline of the Studio System—seven factors contributing to decline in studio systems—audiences fell by half between 46 + 56; approximately 4000 cinemas closed. After 1948 a new structure defined by the ‘ackage unit system’ emerged
o Divorcement in 1948--ending vertical integration, the anti-trust laws required studios to divorce production and distribution from exhibition, bringing to an end the oligopoly of studio era
o Increased demand for films during 1940s led to rise in independent production
o Stars sought greater independence from studios—development of fixed term contracts
o Costs of productions arose alongside growth of trade unions
o Import tariffs imposed on Hollywood films and growth in interest in European art cinemas
o Establishment of suburbs moved audience out of urban marketplace
o Television competition after 1948

∑ Casablanca, Michael Curtiz 1942 Warner Brothers Studio
Producer: Hal B. Wallis
Screenplay:
Script:
Actors: Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, Paul Henreid, Claude Rains

Oscars for Best Picture (1942-43), Director (1943), Screenplay (1943).

∑ Production—Hal B. Wallace, executive in charge of production picks story, directors, performers and other contract talent. The Head of the Studio, Jack Warner also agree to hire any addition talent necessary for production. All personnel tied to contract so had little creative freedom at their control. Creativity from hiring.

∑ Genre—Love story and adventure story, with some light humour

∑ Style—Warners known as noir studio—The Maltese Falcon (1941). Style based on expert camera movement, low key lighting, rapid pacing and shadows, including many night scenes. Such cinematography fitted in with Warner’s strick budget policy and helped to disguise cheap sets. Location work is avoided and most shooting occurs in studio on one or two sets—here Rick’s café and airport.

∑ Script—based on play by Murray Burnett and Joan Alison Everybody Comes to Ricks. Adapted for the screen by a series of writes: Aeneas Mackenzie an Wally Kline began the initial treatment to be replaced by Casey Robinson, the in-house romantic melodrama expert. Finally, Warner’s top ‘script doctors’ polished Julius and Phillip Epstein. Howard Koch reworked Rick character during filming.

∑ Stars—Bogart, in 7 picture deal with Warners was paid 2750. per week. David O. Selznick loaned Bergman to Warners for 15,000. per week. Paul Henreid was loaned out by RKO against his will.

∑ Plot: Casablanca is set in Casablanca, neutral French Morocco, in late 1941 where refugees from Europe await exit visas to escape to Lisbon and then on to America. The action focuses around the people and situations that develop in Café American, owned by Rick (Bogart). Victor Laszlo (Henreid), a renowned resistance fighter arrives in Casablanca with his wife Ilsa (Bergman), both trying to escape the Nazis. We learn that Rick had had an affair with Ilsa in Paris. The Nazis are trying to prevent Laszlo from escaping and the chief of police is asked to assist.


Classical Form
(Introduction to Classical Paradigm + Classical Narrative)

∑ The classical paradigm is a term invented by scholars to describe a certain kind of narrative structure that has dominated fiction film production ever since the second decade of the twentieth century.

∑ Derived from live theatre, the classical paradigm is a set of conventions, not rules. This narrative model is based on a conflict between a protagonist, who initiates the action, and an antagonist, who resists it.

∑ Most films in this form begin with an implied dramatic question. We want to know how the protagonist will get what he or she wants in the face of considerable opposition. The following scenes intensify this conflict in a rising pattern of action. This character’s goal and what obstacles are likely to get in the way of its attainment? Act II, “The Confrontation,” consists of the middle two quarters of the story, with a major reversal of fortune at the midpoint. This portion of the screenplay complicates the conflict with plot twists and an increasing sense of urgency, showing the main character fighting against obstacles. Act III, “The Resolution,” constitutes the final quarter of the story. This section dramatizes what happens as a result of the climactic confrontation.

∑ Aristotle & Poetics

∑ Graphic Representation of Classical Plot
A Aristotelian

B Gustav Freytag, German 19th century theorists—begins with overt conflict which is intensified, reaches climax and resolves by tying up the loose ends of the story and return to normal

C Syd Field, contemporary screenwriting teacher—thee acts with 10 to 20 “plot points” (major twists or keys to action). At the mid-point of the 2nd act there is usually a big reversal of expectations, sending action spinning in a new direction.

∑ Typical of genre films (formulaic plots, characters, dialogue is expedient)
∑ Driven by character
∑ Plot structure takes form of a journey
∑ Continuity editing—logical and economical, rather than lyrical